Graffiti-based vandalism continues to tattoo the urban landscape, defacing buildings, bridges, sidewalks, signs and other structures. The annual cleanup costs throughout the United States have been estimated between $8 billion to 12 billion. In major cities such as New York, Las Vegas, Los Angeles and Chicago, the associated expenses for graffiti vandalism reach well into the millions each year. Private building owners often end up responsible for expensive graffiti removal, and property values tend to go down while this type of crime keeps going up.